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Table 3 Focus and key work and health factors

From: Digitally connected work and its consequences for strain – a systematic review

First author, publication year, country

Main focus of the study

work factors

health factors

Andries*, 1991 [4], The Netherlands

Focus: groups of different occupations in the automation sector - differentiation of risk factors for health

(a) cognitive demands/work content: challenge of the job (e.g., engaging, offering pleasure), qualification (e.g., education, experience, training), autonomy

(b) social factors: quality of leadership, contacts with colleagues

(c) organizational factors: workload (e.g., working hours), hectic working conditions (time pressure, unexpected events), salary and prospects

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: mental strain (e.g., feeling tense, nervous or agitated)

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: health complaints, headaches, sleep

Brenner*, 1995 [17], Sweden

Focus: participatory introduction of computerization - changes in working conditions and health effects

(a) cognitive demands/work content: qualification, responsibility, task variety, reorganization

(b) social factors: contacts with fellow-workers and supervisors

(c) organizational factors: computerization, beliefs about how future tasks would appear, workload

(d) environmental factors/working tools: computer disturbances

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: mental strain, experience with and attitudes toward computers, nervousness

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: somatic symptoms (sleep, heart, fatigue, stomach, musculoskeletal), physiological measures (e.g., cortisol, blood pressure)

[19], New Zealand

Focus: STARA (Smart Technology, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Algorithms)-Awareness - impact on job and well-being outcomes

(c) organizational factors: job insecurity/STARA-Awareness

(i) motivation and satisfaction: career satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: depression, cynicism

Claussner*, 1989 [29], Germany (former GDR)

Focus: different degrees of automation - consequences for health-promoting work design

(a) cognitive demands/work content: decision latitude, task variability, transparency, responsibility, cognitive demands

(b) social factors: social structure (social support, feedback)

(c) organizational factors: workload (quantitative and qualitative overload), human-machine-division of labor, workflow

(d) environmental factors/working tools: environmental conditions, usability of technologies

(i) motivation and satisfaction: satisfaction with different working conditions (e.g., work design, technical equipment, skill use, division of labor)

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: strain, monotony, saturation

[30], UK

Focus: coupling in the context of advanced manufacturing technologies (AMT) - effects on well-being and work demands

(a) cognitive demands/work content: job complexity, work role breadth

(b) social factors: supervisor influence

(d) environmental factors/working tools: technological coupling (synchronicity, workflow rigidity, method uniformity, slack)

(i) motivation and satisfaction: intrinsic job satisfaction, overall job satisfaction

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: mental health (e.g., anxiety, depression, low self-esteem)

Dainoff*, 1981 [32], USA

Focus: physical/mental stress and other effects of computer work (e.g., job pressure) as a function of VDT time

(a) cognitive demands/work content: task variability

(b) social factors: quality of leadership, atmosphere with coworkers, customers and supervisors

(c) organizational factors: pressure, pay, benefits, job insecurity

(d) environmental factors/working tools: ergonomic comments (e.g., light, noise, temperature, workplace arrangement), interruptions, problems with computer system (e.g., slow response time)

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: mental stress (tension, mental strain), general fatigue (very tired, exhausted, drained after work)

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: visual performance (measures of acuity, lateral phoria, and vertical phoria, visual strain (e.g. blurred vision)), physical stress (headaches)

Hacker*, 1985 [58], Germany (former GDR)

Focus: different task-content/−structure and proportion of human-machine interaction in different VDU work associations with task characteristics and strain

(a) cognitive demands/work content: autonomy, task variability, transparency, qualification, excessive demands, learning requirements

(c) organizational factors: cooperation requirements and opportunities, information on hardware/software

(i) motivation and satisfaction: job satisfaction, motivation

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: psychological complaints, experienced monotony, saturation, stress

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: physical complaints

Jackisch*, 1989 [65], Germany (former GDR)

Focus: mental demands during VDU-work - predictability of long-term health effects

a) cognitive demands/work content: cognitive demands

(i) motivation and satisfaction: job satisfaction, behavioral parameter (e.g., performance)

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: current well-being, experienced monotony, saturation, stress

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: physiological parameters (heart rate and blood pressure), complaints, sick leave

[70], Germany

Focus: human-machine-interaction - stress

(a) cognitive demands/work content: deskilling, qualification requirements, situation awareness

(c) organizational factors: general evaluation of human-machine interaction

(d) environmental factors/working tools: technical problems (e.g., software/hardware problems) usability (e.g., self-descriptiveness)

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: stress

Rau* (1996) [99], Germany

Focus: human reliability in complex automated systems and associated health effects

(a) cognitive demands/work content: responsibility, cognitive demands

(i) motivation and satisfaction: motivation

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: mental tension, emotional state, locus of control, current intrinsic states (e.g., ready to exert, tensioned, self-assured)

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: heart rate, blood pressure

Rutenfranz*, 1989 [109], Germany (former GDR)

Focus: changes in physical, mental, and emotional strain through automation

(a) cognitive demands/work content: complexity, responsibility, variability, cognitive demands

(c) organizational factors: breaks

(d) environmental factors/working tools: disruptions

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: biochemical parameters (adrenalin/noradrenalin), heart rate, energy expenditure, cardiopulmonary performance (physical examination, bicycle ergometer)

Seibt*, 1988 [111], Germany (former GDR)

Focus: shift work - health effects

(a) cognitive demands/work content: task content, action control

(b) social factors: social integration

(d) environmental factors/working tools: aggravating conditions (e.g., noise)

(i) motivation and satisfaction: readiness to make an effort

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: experienced strain (initiative, self-confidence, emotional tension, fatigue)

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: heart rate

Stellman*, 1987 [114], USA/Canada

Focus: extent of video display terminal usage - description of job characteristics with analyses of health effects

(a) cognitive demands/work content: task variability, decision latitude, repetitious work, understanding of work process, learning new things, work “makes sense”, cognitive demands

(c) organizational factors: workload

(d) environmental factors/working tools: physical characteristics of the office (e.g., ergonomic stressors, air quality stressors, privacy)

(i) motivation and satisfaction: job satisfaction, office satisfaction

(ii) reduced well-being/affective symptoms: psychological symptoms (irritation, anxiety, depression, hopelessness)

(iii) physiological parameters/somatic complaints: health symptoms (eye-, musculo-skeletal-, gastrointestinal-, respiratory- symptoms)

[117], Sweden

Focus: perception of digitalization - the effect on subjective well-being of bank employees

(b) social factors: organizational culture

(d) environmental factors/working tools: digitalization (degree of use of digital tools, subjective experiences associated with the use of digital tools)

(i) motivation and satisfaction: job satisfaction, life balance, life satisfaction

  1. (*studies categorized by activity group)